Everyone is Going to Hell in a Handbasket, but "Us".

The Catholics, Reformed, and Lutherans are all going to Hell! This was the sentiment by the majority of Anabaptist of the 16th century. As harsh as it sounds to our ears the sentiment would be readily said if the tables were turned and we were being executed by our brothers and sisters in Christ. Dirk Philips said, "If one is not born again, and does not know God through Christ, he cannot be a brother."

The Swiss Bretheren and Menno Simons did not trust their Christian counter-parts. In fact, Menno called his strong statements against the rest of Christendom as the brotherly warning. However, we here of many of the early Anabaptist leaders were willing to have debates with many of the religious leaders of the time. Marpeck was one, but unfortunately it appears his debate ended with his expulsion from Strasbourg.

Hans Denck theologically believe that there ought to be divisions between brothers and sisters, however with the issue of force an coercion there was not the possibility for sacred dialog or trust for that matter. Denck was one that perhaps could of reached across the aisles he believed that there was perhaps truth within the confines of the Jewish and Muslim faith. If there was actually a relationship being cultivated with these two groups is unknown.

With some of the Anabaptists movements they have not moved very far from the Swiss and Menno positions of intereligious dialog. Because of the historic peace stance of the church, it has lead many modern day Mennonites to engage in interligious dialog. Because of the new found ecumenism, it would seem as if the Anabaptist of today see the light of God in all people. The theology is still developing what peace and staying true to the faith, while at the same time finding commonalities across the aisle.

Order in the Church

The Anabaptist from early on committed themselves to order within the Church. Order is what is at core of a church's organizational infrastructure. How a pastor is called? Who and how baptism and communion are to be performed? The issue of Mutual Aid.

With that Anabaptists they believed a pastor should be chosen out of the congregation. Education was not idealized as part of their anti clericalism, however there is some indication that the Pastor must be literate. He should be taught by the Holy Spirit. That even though he is capable of being Pastor he should not appoint himself to the position.

According to the Schliethiem Confession, with the order of the congregation these were the rules to govern the congregation according to Sattler.

1. The brothers and sisters should meet at least three or four times a week, to exercise themselves, in the teaching of Christ and His apostles and heartily to exhort one another to remain faithful to the Lord as they have pledged.

2. When the brothers and sisters are together, they shall take up something to read together. The one to whom God has given the best understanding shall explain it, the others should be still and listen, so that there are not two or three carrying on a private conversation, bothering the others. The Psalter shall be read daily at home.

3. Let none be frivolous in the church of God, neither in words nor in actions. Good conduct shall be maintained by them all also before the heathen.

4. When a brother sees his brother erring, he shall warn him according to the command of Christ, and shall admonish him in a Christian and brotherly way, as everyone is bound and obliged to do out of love.

5. Of all the brothers and sisters of this congregation none shall have anything of his own, but rather, as the Christians in the time of the apostles held all in common, and especially stored up a common fund, from which aid can be given to the poor, according as each will have need, and as in the apostles' time permit no brother to be in need.

6. All gluttony shall be avoided among the brothers who are gathered in the congregation; serve a soup or a minimum of vegetable and meat, for eating and drinking are not the kingdom of heaven.

7. The Lord's Supper shall be held, as often as the brothers are together, thereby proclaiming the death of the Lord, and thereby warning each one to commemorate, how Christ gave His life for us, and shed His blood for us, that we might also be willing to give our body and life for Christ's sake, which means for the sake of all the brothers.

Marpek on the issue of baptism stated that children should be named before the congregation and dedicated to God. This is one of the only sources we have to date allowing for baby dedication in the Early Anabaptist context.

I wonder how these orders were enforced as they were agreed upon. Especially given the anti-hierarchical nature of the church.

Christ and the Church

When reflecting on the ecclesiology and nature of the early Anabaptist Church I am brought back to a famous prayer by St. Theresa of Avila.

Christ Has No Body

Christ has no body but yours,
No hands, no feet on earth but yours,
Yours are the eyes with which he looks
Compassion on this world,
Yours are the feet with which he walks to do good,
Yours are the hands, with which he blesses all the world.
Yours are the hands, yours are the feet,
Yours are the eyes, you are his body.
Christ has no body now but yours,
No hands, no feet on earth but yours,
Yours are the eyes with which he looks
compassion on this world.
Christ has no body now on earth but yours.

What is so interesting is this is the incarnational message of the Anabaptist concerning the Church, Christ's Body. Teresa was a contemporary of Anabaptist born in 1515 and died in 1585 in Spain. But the truth is that this was what the Anabaptist her contemporaries were dealing with in Western Europe.

What was the radical regeneration that occur ed in the the congregant. Was there an outside change, because an outside change was to mirror the work and life of Christ. If one did not show this outward sign, which in someways was a means of grace, then the ban was to be instilled and for some groups such as the Dutch Anabaptist by 1550 were banning thoughts who were not participating in the regenerative work of the Holy Spirit and shunning them as well. Each group whether Mennonite, Hutterite, the Swiss Brethren, had to deal with what was at the core of being "in the mind of Christ".

This lead to many a problem with those who were literalistic and those who were spiritualist. It is important to say that the word spiritualist conotates someone in the modern times who is a member of the New Age Movement. However in the Anabaptist context these spiritualists were those of the more liberal nature who believed that being a part of the community of God lent itself more to the working of the Holy Spirit and the Grace that was given. The early Anabaptist believed the outer change must be visible because they were truly the incarnated body of Christ. That what ever Christ did on earth they were to mirror, because in essence the Church was now Christ Body. This is what is so eary about Teresa of Avila's words issuing forth during the same time period.

The sacramentalists did not believe that the water, or the bread and wine had any holy properties to them. They sure did see them as a means of grace. But rather a reality of finite bringing homage to the infinite. The Apostles Creed was the same for the Anabaptist. There was nothing that was God ordained about them they were simply a testimony of God's grace, yet they were not a bestowal of grace they simply were an affirmation.

I myself have great reservations with concerns of assuming that the Church is the Body of Christ incarnated here on earth. The Church does not have a good track record whether Anabaptist or otherwise of carrying out the love and grace of Christ for all peoples and all times. If this was certainly true, then all Christians in every time and place should experience the ban and be shunned, because the only true regeneration happens upon entrance into the heavenly kingdom. Grace is something that reforms the soul but this idea of regeneration becoming complete or having a certain track or guideline to follow seems to be a bit of a stretch for me. Grace does not come from a regenerated community "acting" as the Church. Grace comes from the work of the Christ and through the manifestation of the Holy Spirit. The Church is the Bride of Christ preparing for his arrival, and as she waits she has to make herself ready for his coming.

Economics and Gender

With the issue of economics, I find that you can not separate them from gender. We find that Anabaptists were predominantly members of merchant class. Women were as much a part of the economic scene as perhaps they were in the 1950's. Women were weavers, grocers, writers, bakers. Marriage from very on was an economic union. During the time period dowrys were still en vogue, and many of the women who were put into convents were only allowed to do so with large dowrys.

Women were help mates to their husbands but as their husbands were taken off to face charges they were left to run the family business and raise their children. Women were prophetic voices in their community. They were not allowed to be preachers but they were allowed to bring to work of the Holy Spirit to the community and question its decision making.

The Anabaptist did pay taxes but with concern to war bonds and taxes supporting war they did not. This led to imprisonment. The anabaptist believed in radical discipleship and part of that discipleship was the sharing of what one had. According to the Anabaptist Network,

"Having ‘all things in common’ was not, in fact, the normal expression of economic discipleship among Anabaptists. The Moravian Hutterites developed ‘common purse’ communities, initially through necessity and increasingly on the basis of theological conviction and biblical interpretation (especially of Acts 2-4). The short-lived and disastrous Anabaptist uprising at Münster, which so alarmed English and other authorities, also imposed common ownership. But Swiss Brethren, Mennonites and most other Anabaptists practised ‘mutual aid’, continuing to own property but gladly making their resources available to brothers and sisters in need."

Would this work today? It has been tried especially int the 60's with issue of the commune. However, they didn't last. People seem capable to live in community only in spurts and often times out of desperation. The family seems to be the infrastructure that can last, not spiritual synthetic one, no matter how hard we try.

Politics, Politics, Politics.

The issue of Politics and the Anabaptist thought process, is counter cultural to say the least- with the exception of Marpeck. The Anabaptists were unclear in the beginning of what role they were to play in Government. For the Swiss Bretheren they believed in swearing no oaths, and hold no offices.

They also believed one must be baptized as an adult. This was problematic because the infrastructure of the local government did not allow for a believer's church. The problems that arose from the believer's church is that the local church supported the government and vice verse. In an idyllic situation it was to be a symbiotic relationship. The saying in reference to the Anbaptist believers church was "two's company three's a crowd."

The Anabaptist would not swear oaths to the state. This led to many problems especially when the invasion of the Turks and the warfare that was happening between the Evangelicals and the Catholics. It was seen as a loyalty issue by the government. It was indeed a loyalty issue. The Anabaptist saw their world in two kingdoms. They must be loyal to the kingdom of Heaven, because all else would pass away. This loyalty was seen as anarchist in intent. The question of peace or a sword was at the fore with how to be a member of the kingdom of God. For the Swiss Brethren they believed that Christ never wielded a sword, and submitted to the state even until death and so should they. For the Muntzerites they believed in a more apocalyptic view of scripture, that they took up the sword to usher in the end age.

I myself see both sides to the coin. I understand about being loyal to the government and the kingdom of heaven. I am not so certain that you can't do both. Unfortunately, the government does not allow for conscience when it comes to morals. Even in the U.S. you have to register as a conscience objector, but you can't choose whether you serve or not based on the merits of just war if you fall out of the historic- peace churches.

Spirit and Letter

With the issue of Spirit and Letter, we find that it is a further continuation of the dialog the Anabaptists had with concerns of the Soteirology of the time.

The early Anabaptist had problems with Luther's views of Grace through the Spirit. Luther had introduced Sola Scriptura, "Word Alone" which said that Christianity did not need the traditons of man but should rely on the truth found in scripture. This led to a freedom that had no accountabilty and discipleship was put on the back burner.

The Anabaptist problems with this was that with the opening of scripture into the vernacular anyone could read it but it was the right interpretation through the inner working of the Holy Spirit that was key. The issue of grace and law was at the heart of Luther's theology and the Anabaptist held that these two must be held in tension with each other.

One of the problems was as time progressed the Anabaptists became more legalistic and more rigid as they sought to interpret the scriptures by the rule of the law, the measuring stick in which they measured the fruits that were being produced by the Holy Spirit.

Once Saved Always Saved, Well Not Quite.

The Anabaptists refuted Luther's theology of the bound will and being once saved always saved. The Anabaptist believed that God offers grace to all however we as his created have free will to accept or reject that grace. There view of accepting that grace was quite different from that of Luther's. When one would seek salvation the early Anabaptist beleived that there was an inner change. This inner change led to the outward sign of baptism. After one became a member of the community they person would enact that covenental relationship through discipleship, the outward sign of the means of grace that had occured.

For the Hutterites this outward sign of the means of grace was through the sharing of property. This sharing of property was based on the model of the church set forth by Luke in Acts. If one decided to leave the Hutterite community the property that was "held in common" would be the property of the community and the individual would leave with nothing.

Very soon after the outward signs of discipleship were seen as the test of faith. There must be fruits seen, with the culmination of time so must the fruits. This led to the use of the ban against brothers and sisters in the faith whose fruit did not mature as quickly as others in the faith community. This soon led some members of the faith community to go back to the reformed and lutheran churches in their villages.

I myself believe once saved always saved until the person makes a clear cut with Christ, however even cuts can be stitched and the fabric made whole through the grace and regeneration of Christ.

Christology

When it comes to the issue of Christology I am taken back to the musical Jesus Christ Super Star where Jesus is brought before Herrod. Herrod asks, "Who is this unfortunate, someone Christ, King of the Jews." The score of JC Superstar really delves into the issues of what is Christology and what if anything do we think about the humanity and divinity of Jesus Christ.

Who Christ was for the Anabaptist took many shapes. For some he brought a staff to usher a new reign of peace, for others he brought a sword. For some his body was made from celestial flesh as in the case of Meno and Muntzer, for others the congregation was the body of Christ. But for all there was no re-sacrifice of the Body and Blood of Jesus just a simple meal of wine and bread drawing each one together in holy covenant with Christ and each other.

For the Hutterites, Elder Peter Reidemann said, "Jesus Savior and Christ, fully human and fully divine, the only begotten son of the Father. In the Swiss Ausbund, its Christology was almost verbatim the Apostles Creed. It is interesting that these groups with there belief in Christ passed down as non-heretical beliefs of the Anabaptists. Rather the beliefs of Menno and the other monophysite Anabaptists beliefs this is what they were branded with.

I find it interesting that today after over 500 years, we as the church follow Christ but for many of us we still are not sure of what that means. Is Jesus God? Is Jesus Man? Can Jesus really be both, how? Does Mary have a part to play, or was she more of a surrogate mother picked out of a heard? Did Jesus die for my sins or was it a tragic mistake that shows us how to care but not get caught?

Credo, Fredo! I believe, Fredo.

This next unit will be more in a conversational style, now that much of the history is now out of the way. I will be delving deeper into the theology of the 1st Anabaptists, and will be using many more "I" statements.

I am a Pastor in the United Church of Christ, we are a confessional church but not a creedal church. I find that the Anabaptists are our spiritual distant cousins with regard of how we look at the creeds. I beleive the statement on creeds for the UCC is true for the early Anabaptist of Western Europe. We see the creeds as testimonies, not "tests" of faith.

According to C. Arnold Synder, "While Anabaptists generally affirmed the Apostle's Creed (comonly called the "twelve articles of faith") nevertheless they followed common Christian practice by investing creedal affirmations with thier own particular (Anabaptist) meanings." They were all about reinterpretting the scritptures and creeds to fit the way they saw the world around them. There is not much difference between them and Christianity in the North America context in that way. They were known to change the "I"s in the Apostles Creed to "We" showing the interalitional aspects of belief.

The Schliethheim Confession is another example of the Confessions of the Anabaptist. It showed what was important to the community that Sattler wished to address.

1. Baptism- One must Believe, one can only believe as an adult.
2. Ban.- Excommunication could be utilized for those who fell out of the faith.
3. The Breaking of Bread- The Communion was a memorial meal.
4. Separation from the Abomination- the first inclings of Separation of Church and State, but theologically motivated.
5. Pastors and the Church- Pastors should be elected by the congregation.
6. Sword- This established the theology of Peace and that Christians should not serve as a magistrate.
7. Oath- No one should swear an oath because the scripture speaks against it.

With each of the Confessions we find a relational aspect to them. What do we believe in this community, and why?

Common Core

The Anabaptists, did have a common core of beliefs. There was much division with the descendants of Melchior Hoffman, but even in those divisions I believe that we can truly see some similarities, as well as with the Swiss, Dutch, and South German Anabaptists. It seems that wherever the Anabaptist lived whether it took on some local religious beliefs and practice. If a person lived in Reformed territory, they might seemed a little more reformed in typology they same is true for those residing in Lutheran territory. For example, Menno Simons furtherance of Luther's "kingdom theology" shows that Menno either believed the theology at one point or sought to critique in another. In any case, it was due to his close proximity to Lutheranism that he delved into what it mean to live in the Kingdom of God. In some ways Anabaptists were the spiritual critics of the their time.

The critiques of Anabaptism is the core of the movement. Without there being that moxy and freedom to evaluate the socio-political as well as religious movements that were beginning to take root in Norther Europe. Through there critical analysis and their new found relationship through the bible, thanks towards the printing press and the vernacular bibles that were being made more readily available. The anabaptists were able to discern what they thought was right.

Central to their orthodoxy, was the three-fold baptism, the Lord's Supper as a memorial meal,the creed as confession, anti-clericalism, and a common purse for the poor- which coincided with the Priesthood of all believers which was taken a further step that Luther's. They also believe in faith and work citing James 2:12, "Faith without works is dead." It is interesting that the book of James was the one of the books that Luther thought should be done away with. These were the things that Anabaptists recognized in each other when they came together.

Outside of the Anabaptist core there was a cacophony of different beliefs especially in regards whether to be sword bearers or staff bearers. These dissensions might be seen in the city of Strasbourg, population 20,000+. In Strasbourg there was a meeting on every corner. One wonders if this is due to theology as much of the Midwest can be depicted as, or whether it was more a case of running out of space. I believe it must have truly been both. People move to where they feel as the spirit is moving them, its interesting to see how the spirit moved in so many ways with such a small movement. How is the Reformation and the 16th century Anabaptist relationships a microcosm of what is at work today in Christianity. Is there a cry for unity, or are we still able to asses what is at the core of our beliefs and see the work of Christ across the aisles?

Histriography/ You are the Weakest Link! Good Bye!

The anabaptists have historically been horrible about keeping a running history of the movement past the early Radical Reformation era. With the one exception of the Martyrs Mirror. Martyrs Mirror was published in 1660 it was a large book detailing the deaths of Anabaptist Martyrs, and included engravings by Jan Luiken. The author was dutch, Tieleman Janz van Braght. The book of 1290 pages and its journaling of the atrocities was written in Dutch as well. For about 300 years this was the only history that Anabaptists wrote of themselves. Most of what is passed down to us we find in theological treatise of the time and after. Both Zwingli and Luther wrote of the "misguided" and "treacherous" anabaptists. The Spiritualists of that time such as Sebastian Franck were diplomatic with there rendering of Anabaptists saying that they were a pious group but one that tended toward legalism.-Something that is still true today with many of the descendants of the movement.

One of the exceptions in the 300 year gap is through the writings of Gottfried Arnold in his work, Unparteyische Kirchen- und Ketzer-Historie. There have been several editions printed but none yet in English. Arnold was a Pietist Lutheran Pastor, mystic, and hymn writer who through his pietistic leanings was able to grapple with the truths of Anabaptism and dispell some of the notorious untruths of Anabaptism, one being that they were "universalists". However due to the hate and bigotry of when it was first published, 1699, it did not gain a following.
According to GAMEO, Ernst Troetlsch said, "a church history which is even today not out-of-date and which can still be compared with modern church historians. It covers an incredibly rich field of material and carries the student into the atmosphere of extra-ecclesiastical Protestantism as no other book does" (Sociallehren, 1912, 800).

We don't here much until Harold Bender in his treatise on Anabaptist History, sought to connect all of the sheep of Anabaptism into the Swiss Anabaptist fold. Bender himself had ethnically was descended from these Anabaptists, and it was through his upholding of the Schliethiem Confession and other source documents that he held that the great migrations of Anabaptism started with the Swiss. They were the fathers and mothers of Anabaptism. Benders model of development is characterized as "onegensis" or of out of one creation.

Soon after other anabaptists soon quickly criticized Benders history of onegensis. George H. Williams and Roland Bainton, were two such men who held issue with benders commentary on the roots of Anabaptism. This led to a revision of history citing that the many different leaders of Anabaptism and the countries in which they live grew up concurrently or out of what was termed "polygenesis". That the anabaptist arose out of the social chaos of the Reformation and the injustices that were doled out to the peasant classed.

I myself disagree with this analysis. I find the roots be quite enmeshed. However, I find that at times these were predominantly men on the cusp of overthrowing the establishment, they did not have the where with all due to many of the leaders being martyred or exiled. That the early leaders were most likely 75- 90% educated with a small percentage that were illiterate. Anabaptists have a mythology of pride in the peasant roots. However their leadership in fact were on par, with many of the other evangelical pastors of the time. Where they lacked was in political prowess. They did not always try to work for change in the mode of the area in which they abide. Change could happen over time as Zwingli knew but not at break neck speed. The radical movement could have become a mainstay if it was done at a slower pace. The ministry the radicals presented was to the peasant classes but we find that the Reformed and Lutheran traditions ministered to these folks as well, but it would seem the radical movement fan the flames of the injustices that were seen in the
countryside.

It is also must be asserted that often times the historiographer has a preconceived notion that the Peasants war was a war that was lead by the poor for the poor. In actuality it may be truthful to say it was a time period when the guilds were reaching "middle class status or upper middle class status" and were not willing to submit to the taxation of the church and the local government. This same issue would arise again in our own country. Often times Americans depict the Civil War being led by Farmers and common men, however this is a mythology that is much like the Anabaptist one. The reality was the rich Plantation owners and privateers and merchants, otherwise known as the merchant class, paid for the war. We have seen these uprisings happen again and again, in Egypt, South Africa, China, Vietnam, Russia, Italy, South America etc. The U.S. won, the Anabaptists were defeated, but with the Anabaptist the people still remained and there stories were passed down as a people defeated.

It's the end of the World as we know it, or is it?

Eschatology is the study of the end times. For many world religions and cultures the end times signify a time of a re-righting of good and evil, and it often ends with either a war or other cataclysmic event or a combination. For the Early Anabaptists, some took very literally that Jesus was coming back during the Radical Reformation while others took it more figuratively. Hans Hut, Melchior Hoffman, Thomas Muntzer,Jan Mathijis, all had an apocalyptic view the times they were living.

These radicals believed it was time for the 144,000 to be chosen through believers baptism and the rest of the world should fall to their knees and beg for mercy. For some like Muntzer it would lead to a movement that would take up swords in honor of this end times gospel against the nobility while Jan Mathijis would take up the sword in Muenster. Mathijis believed that Muenster was the New Jerusalem, where Armageddon was to take place. To choose Muenster as the New Jerusalem was a "poor choice". The evangelical city was already at war with the Catholic Bishop and what the battle of Muenster did was solidify the distrust of Anabaptists by both Catholics and Evangelicals alike.

Thomas Muntzer had a vision for equality, he lead the war cry in peasants war in 1524. He was captured, tortured and decapitated. He was seen as an anarchist trying to topple the governments that had been put in place by God. The people who survived the Peasant Revolt believed that a prophet would come.

The prophet that would come, would be a socio-path named Jan Mathijis. He believed that he was the Enoch, or last prophet to be alive during the age as revealed in John's Apocalypse. Muenster was the New Jerusalem for this sect of Anabaptism from about 1534-1535. Mathijis ran the evangelicals out of the city and held it for about a year and a half. He wielded his sword with a mighty fist and his rule was not to be questioned. But when it came to the battle field he brought none. that if he simply walked out into the battle field nothing would happen to him. As walked on the battle field he was hacked to death before the Muntzerites very eyes.

Even crazier was his successor Jan Van Lienden who was a tailor and actor took the reigns after Mathijis demise. It was like the succession of the Cesars of Rome, they just got craizer and crazier. Lienden soon elevated himself giving himself to king name Jan Van Lienden, the king of the New Jerusalem. After so many men had died he took up 16 concubines and reinstated polygamy. While the City of Muenster was under siege all of this was happening, and the Evangelicals were building a bigger and bigger army. Perhaps the blood did run as high as the horses bridal in Muenster, but it would be the blood of the Anabaptists not their adversaries.

The apocalyptism of these men and their failure set Anabaptism on a different trajectory. There were those who were grew up along side violent brothers, known as the staff bearers. The staff bearers who included William Marpeck, Menno Simons, Sattler and others believed that this world was not their home, and that God was the one who should seek vengeance, not God's people. Some hoped the Turks would destroy the hegemony that persisted in Northern Europe, while others simply believed that Christ was coming soon, and they must reflect the light of Christ. Still others believed that it was meet and right to be a people who were non violent but there was no second coming eminent, Menno fell into this category.

It would seem if the Muenster would have succeeded, Anabaptism would have become a leading force in Europe. They simply did not have enough numbers or money to back the war effort. The radicals in Muenster were primarily made up of those from the guilds and the local peasant classes. Lutheranism might have been eclipsed if the Muntzerites would have succeeded. Instead, the Anabaptist have this testimony to remind themselves of how life is precious and that our lives belong to God and not government.

Spread the Word

When delving into the communication that was occuring begining in the radical reformation questions are asked whether the main communication style the Anabaptist was medieval or that of the enlightenment. The main way in which the Anabaptists was through pnemonics. The movement is charecterised with an educated leadership, that was soon imprisoned and the faith being left to the flock.

The flock was made up of those who were often times of the guilds or the peasant classes. Those of the guild were often educated and literate, but literate in the vernacular. During the 1520's and after there were bibles and other religios tracks that were written in the vernacular. Often times the tracks that were written by the Anabaptists were more like small concordances, that listed certain texts that would define for the possible convert what was needed to experience the inner baptism.

Hubmaier was one who provider much of the literature, in fact he provided a catechism to help the next generation of anabaptist become enculturated with their own peace witness and why believer's baptism was neccesary. Hubmaier's catechism was done through the traditional format of question and answer. He presents his question and answer format through the questioning Leonhard and through the wise answers of Hans.

The Anabaptists, because they were not part of the political life, with exceptions Marpeck, there message was stunted. It was by word of mouth that the radical movement. It is in my estimation that what truly fueled the movement was in the urgency of the gospel of the end times. It was through this meme that the movement would find growth. Unfortunately, for tragedies such as Muenster the radical movement would not be come a tour de force in Europe.

North Germany and the Dutch spread of Anabaptism

Much of the spread of Anabaptism in North Germany and Holland is attributed to Melchior Hoffman. Hoffman, was born around 1495-1500 in Swabisch Hall. He was a furrier, was literate and was quite an effective rhetorician. In 1523, he had joined the ranks of the growing Lutheran majority as a lay missionary. He had a rocky relationship with the Lutherans due to his theological bent towards the work of the Holy Spirit and the end times. He finally, broke with the the Lutherans in 1529 where he openly refuted the "real presence". He would make a sojourn to the City of Toleration, Strassbourg.

In Strassbourg he came across several of the radicals: Marpeck, Denck, with some over zealous followers of Hut. He was arrested in 1533 and would die some 10 years later in prison. But one of his most intriguing theologies was one that he borrowed from the spiritualist Casper Schwingfeld. Hoffman believed in the celestial flesh of Christ. A monophysite theology which describes the birth of Jesus and that his biology was from God, and the Mary was simply an empty vessel. The ancient way of believing how the child was conceived was through the man's genitalia implanting a seed in the woman's furrow, her genitalia. In the birth narrative of Christ, the Holy Spirit takes on the role of the man. There was no issue or understanding of modern DNA, that genes are inherited from both. Some theologies, including those of the Gnostic's posit, that Jesus was not God at all, but only man. This is what was so important about the council of Nicea. Hoffman believed that Jesus was fully God but not fully man.

Hoffman did not believe in taking up the sword, but his follower Muntzer. did. Hoffman was responsible for much of Northern Germany Anabaptist converts. Muntzer took up an apocalyptic theology, and believed that the the world was coming to an end and that in order to usher in the reign of God, the Kingdom of the world must be destroyed. However, it was Muntzer and his follwers who would be destroyed by the sword. When all was over many Muntzerites were dead, and three Muntzer's successors were tortured with hot tongs, tortured and executed and there remains were hung in iron clad cages at the apex of the St. Lamberti Church. The Church was ironically named after a bishop who was a martyr.

The other side of the family tree that sprung from staff bearers was Menno Simons a Dutch Anabaptist, whom Modern-Day Mennonites trace their lineage. Menno was ordained to the Catholic Church in Utrech in 1524. He was in the priesthood until 1536. He was married by the Dutch Anabaptist Obe Philips, a non-muntzerite. He married Getrude and had two daughters and one son. He died of old age, and was one step ahead of the law. He also espoused the Melchiorite theology of the Celestial Flesh. Menno was a moderate Anabaptist who was a unifier of the cross sections or the Radical Movement.

Strassborg, a city of toleration. Well, Kind Of!

Strasbourg, was on of the largest cities in the Holy Roman Empire. It was city that was governed by a City Council, who operated out of the convictions of "toleration". Under there guiding philosophy of toleration, both the evangelical movement and the radical movement was free to flourish. In Strasbourg,the radical movement was somewhat like the topography of the church in the Midwest, there was a different congregation on every corner. Between 1527-1533, the radical movement was growing rapidly and many of the leaders were in the City. There was a diversity of belief, but yet there is some indication that each leader, recognized the other leaders as part of the radical even though they did not agree on every aspect of theology they did however hold that believer's baptism was central to their faith.

Pilram Marpeck, was one of the leaders that held some sway among the political winds of Strasbourg. In 1528, Mar peck became a citizen, by a cash purchase. He was soon arrested for holding Anabaptist meetings in his house. But the meetings topic were what to do about the poor refugees that were pouring into the city. The peasants that had already been poor now had attained refugee status. Rueblin, Kautz, and Meyger were arrested as well. Meyger recanted and swore the oath to the city. Rueblin and Kautz remained in prison. Marpeck would be released soon thereafter and had attained a position building up the infrastructure of the region be building up the local logging industry via the Rhine. Marpeck was one of the exceptions in Anabaptism who believed that yes, there were two kingdoms, but that it was not against scripture to serve in the capacity of a civil servant, however it was to swear an oath. One wonders how he got around this point, except perhaps for the guiding philosphy of "toleration". By 1532, however it seems that Marpeck had worn out his welcome and was exiled.

Strassborg even though "toleration" seems to be the order of the day it seems that the radicalism of the Anabaptists was to much for the city. The city seems to have embraced toleration as long as there was not an upheaval with the status qou. How much has really changed in the world. We are tolerant as long as we are not stretched, if one is changing to much of what is central to society, society has no choice but to bring its weight down. Movements, seem to work out of a minority with new convictions if there is growing sentiment with the populace at large, change might can happen.

South German Anabaptism

Southern German Anabaptism has been assumed to have developed out of missionary efforts of the Swiss Bretheren. According to recent scholarship it appears that Anabaptism in th southern Germany, developed concurrently with that of the Swiss Brethren. The Germans anabaptists, held to the convictions of the first three aspects of the Schiethiem confession, but that seems to be where the simialarities stop.

In the early Anabatist movement in Germany, it seems as if Anabaptists felt that the sword, was a neccesary aspect to bring in the Kingdom of God. (With the exclusion of Pilgram Marpeck) that it was a way that the 144,000 that are mentioned in John's Apocalypse (Revelations). Much of this is due to the eschatology of Thomas Muntzer. Several Southern German leaders such as Hans Denck and Hans Hut, and Melchior Rinck were involved or at least connected to the Muntzer Movement.

The Southern German Anabaptist movement was what was to happen to the radical movement after the fall out of Muntzer. The South German Leaders did not have a unified theology. Hans Denck would have been the quintessential post modern, he was radical, so radical he was a humanist and was into the spiritualism of the spirtualists, he was in fact so liberal he was brought up on charges of "universalism" advocating that all would be forgiven at the end, including Satan. He died in 1527 of what was most likely the plague. Before he died he became disillusioned with the divisions, within the anabaptist movement. He published a book that was an apology called "recantation".

Hans Hut was an itenerant book salesman. He hid Thomas Muntzer for a night,and participated in the Peasant's War. He was baptized by Hans Denck on May 1526 in Augsburg. He was known to be not only as a traveling salesman but also was an itenerant preacher, who used his book selling as a way to spread the message of the "radical" gospel. Hut was known for his heightened sense of eschatology. This deep rooted belief that the 16th century was in the end times, was probably garnered from Huts association and tuteladge under Muntzer. With the worry and anticipation that Christ's return was immenent Hut and other Anabaptists were able to garner a large number of the populace to join the movement. Hut was arrested in September of 1527, just shortly after the Martyr's Synod in Augsurg. He was put on the rack, and tortured several times. He did under "curious circumstances" apparently a fire has broke out in his cell and he asphyxiated. His death however did not circumvent his execution. He was then burned at the stake. Hut would make a lasting impression on much of Prussia he started congregations in: Haina, Coburg, Konigsberg, Ostheim, Bamberg, Erlangen, Nuremburg, Uttenreuth, Augsburg, Passau, Nickolsburg, Vienna, Melk, Steyr, Freistadt,Linz, Laufen, and Salzburg, not to mention all the little knock about villages he visited.

Melchor Rinck, AKA the "Greek" because of his linguistic skills, was born to what are assumed to be peasant parents in Southern Germany very intelligent child, he graduated highschool and went on to the Universities of Lipzig and Erfurt. He was born around 1498 and he by the time he was approximately 23 he joined the evangelical movement, this was the early term for the protestant movement. He studied under reformed Pastor Heinrich Fuchs in Hersfeld.

Approximately two years later he would marry Anna Eckhart, tha daughter of Lutheran pastor Hans Eckhart. There marriage seems to have been somewhat tulmutous. Rinck espoused that his wife only married to settle down and have a "quiet life". This gives us some indication that she herself did not hold to his anabaptist beliefs. In fact, her father once he is later imprisoned, seeks to have the marriage annulled. It is reported she had not seen Rinck since he fought with Muntzer at Muenster. He perhaps continued to fight in the Peasant Revolt, but there is no documentation to support.

In 1528, he attempts to get Reformed Pastor Johannes Bader of Landau to become anabaptist. Bader had some leanings but ended up not making a commitment to the cause, when he realized that he truly did believe in infant baptism. Rinck was Baptized by Hut. He seemed to get out of town, just before getting caught several times. Until he finnaly got caught after he was banished from Hessian territory in 1533. He came back, immediately and was thrown into prison for life, the last that we hear from him is in 1553 at the age of 60.

Rinck's theology was not in keeping with Huts eschatology. He believed baptism was important followed by discipleship, but it was not to be done as in effort to bring about the end times, rather for followers of Christ. Baptism by water was very important to him and it is said that he baptized with the sign of the tau.

Zurich, Zwingli, and the Radical Swiss

Luther set the precedent that led to a reforming path that many of the countries of Northern Europe would take, and Switzerland was no exception. As the reformation grew with momentum it spread from Germany into Switzerland. The former priest Ulrich Zwingli, seems to have been a very strong influence in the Anabaptist movement. He was noted to be a humanist who had some leanings toward Erasmus,he was a sacramentarian, and he and his followers began the iconoclast movement. A movement that was characterized as devaluing all aspects of the Catholic faith, from it's memorial view of the Eucharist, being that it was simply a meal, nothing more, from it smashing of images that were housed in the local parish church, whence the name iconoclast comes from, to it's strong movement in anticlericism, which gave rise to attacking the Catholic church's teaching on the celibacy of the priesthood and for monastics. C.A. Snyder suggests as has many a scholar that this last component of reformed theology was a derivative of Zwingli's own past in which he had a common law marriage with a concubine named Anne Rheinhard.

The Reformed Movement, began to stagnate with the influence of the local city council being in charge of the future of, "How much reform?" would be present in the Swiss Reformation. Zwingli seems at one point in time to favor, believer's baptism, but due to the political pressures being exerted upon him, he took a view that was in keeping with the local council. Several of Zwingli's followers advocated for believer's baptism, and these men would be the seeds of the movement of Anabaptism in Switzerland, believing that the reforms of Zwingli were not far reaching and were not fully keeping with scripture.

Conrad Grebel, Felix Mantz,and George Blaurock and others in attendance were reportedly the first to be re-baptized on January 15, 1525 at Mantz' house. They did so with much fear and trepidation and asked for God's mercy and grace while they were baptized. Grebel, Mantz, Blaurock and others who were present knew that there was no turning back. The had opened the proverbial Pandora's Box.

Zwingli, certainly must have been angry upon learning that some of his most close and intimate associates did not wait for him to try to persuade the council of Zurich. This betrayal would mitigate the signing of these radicals death warrants. It seems as if the newly formed movement believed the best way to get their theology across and recognized by the city council, if not necessarily the populace of Zurich and the surrounding area, was by exponentially making new converts . It is assumed that if there was a large enough following that the council would succumb to the new movement perhaps,seeing that Zwingli was not aggressive enough in getting the truth across to the Council of Zurich.

The printing press played a major key in disseminating the radical reform brought about by the Swiss Brethren. Pamphlets began to pour out of Waldshut, a neighboring province of Austria. Balthazar Hubmaier was involved in the radical movement early on perhaps as early as 1520 when it was said that he was decidedly "evangelical". The year before in 1519 was responsible for the ousting of hundreds of Jews from Ringenberg where Hubmaier was in charge. However, he saw that reformed was needed in Waldshut, where he moved as soon as the expulsion of the Jews from Ringenburg took place.

Many of the radical reformers who had been involved in Zurich were in Waldshut during the Peasant Revolt of 1523. Grebel and Mantz were in dialog with Hubmaier, it is unclear if Hubmaier was partial to the reform being led by Zwingli in Zurich or rather thought that this was a catalyst for beginning his own reform movement, or aid the radicals, in reforming Waldshut. Even though Hubmaier is not recognized as a leader of the Swiss Brethren, his writings on the importance of believer's baptism was paramount to the radical reformation, turning the tide in many an educated persons mind. Hubamaier was baptized by Wilhelm Rueblin on Easter Sunday, 1525. Over 300 persons would be "re-baptized" on the Church's most sacred day, the Resurrection of our Lord, which was historically used for baptizing of new cachets to the faith. Hubmaier's writings led Waldshut, to become a "Anabaptist" city and many of the Pastor's that were present at the mass baptism, including Rueblin, found pastorates in the local countryside.

As the pressures began to heat up for the Swiss Brethren, a codifying of what was to be unique to the faith was being composed by Michael Sattler. The Schleithiem Confession was a treatise stating what was central to the faith of the Swiss Bretheren. Sattler had been the second in command as prior to the Benedictine Monastery of St. Peter. Sattler, had left his post as prior it appears during the Blackforest Peasants War in 1519-1520. The unrest of the local peasants perhaps led him to leave but it isn't entirely clear what his motives for leaving were except that he had made an oath that he would not join those with Anabaptist leanings. By summer of 1526, one thing was definitely clear and that Sattler was decidedly Anabaptist, preaching in Strassbourg, and baptizing adult converts to the faith.

Perhaps to provide the new converts with some sort of social moorings, he developed the Schlethiem Confession. This Confession gave the new convert a way to understand the Kingdom of God in new ways. There were two kingdoms,as Sattler outlined, One was the Kingdom of God and the other was under the dominion of Satan and all of his minions. There was no commerce to be had between the two kingdoms, they separate and thereby violence that was enacted by the government was the work of Satan, and that one must not bear the sword and be apart of the Heavenly Kingdom. On February 24, 1527 the Confession was first seen in print, under the title the Schliethiem Articles. There are seven articles which give a clear revelation of the theology of the Swiss Anabaptists.

1. Baptism- One must Believe, one can only believe as an adult.
2. Ban.- Excommunication could be utilized for those who fell out of the faith.
3. The Breaking of Bread- The Communion was a memorial meal.
4. Separation from the Abomination- the first inclings of Separation of Church and State, but theologically motivated.
5. Pastors and the Church- Pastors should be elected by the congregation.
6. Sword- This established the theology of Peace and that Christians should not serve as a magistrate.
7. Oath- No one should swear an oath because the scripture speaks against it.

Reflecting on the Schleitheim Confession, it makes me wonder if the founders of this country had access to these truths, because it seems to set up a theology that is democratic in nature. Perhaps this is what was so seemingly anarchist of the Swiss Brethren, they did not support the government, and the supported the whims of the populace verses the elite, something that would later ring true with Revolution of the United States. That the roots of the Peasants War, is in some ways is at the base of the human Psyche. Freedom of speech, freedom from want, freedom to worship, and freedom from fear all of which was a series depicted by the late Norman Rockwell. Yet Ironically, the Four Freedoms, were painted to help aid the bond effort of War World II echoing sentiments from Zwinglian Reformed Theology.

History and Culture of the Anabaptists

Over the next several days, I will be going into different aspects of what solidified the Anabaptist from a diverse group of non-conformists to that of a radical christian movement in the 16th century. The texts that I will be primarily refering to are, Anabaptist History and Theology: An Introduction by C. Arnold Snyder, the second book I will be utilizing is Anabaptism in Outline ed. Walter Klaasen. The Second book is more than just an outline but a translated, primary source document that details what was going on during the early radical movement.

Topics that will be covered in Unit I: Swiss Anabaptism, South German-Austrain Anabaptism, Anabaptists Groups in Strassbourg, Dutch Anabaptism, The Spread of Anabaptism: Mission and Witness, Eschatology- Study of "The End Times", Anabaptist Historiography, Was there a Common Core of Beliefs.

Unit II, will deal with Theology, Spirituality,Faith and Practice. I will be detailing: The Anabaptist Confessions and the Apostles' Creed, Christology, Salvation and Discipleship: Freedom of the Will, Spirit and Letter, Politics and Government, The Sword or the Staff, Peace and Non Resistance, Economics, Gender.

Unit III, Deals with the Church and its ecclesiology. Topics will include: The Nature of the Church, Baptism and the Lord's Supper, Church Order and Leadership, Mutual Aid-Mutual Love-Mutual Admonition, Relationship to Other Christians, and the Relevance of Sixteenth Century Anabaptism for the Church Today.

As we go on this Pilgrimage be open to the questions, God is putting on your heart. I will be sharing mine, so feel free to enter into a sacred dialog.

Renegades, Rebels, and Rogues, the Story of the Radical Reformation.

I hope you have come with a good set of choppers, because there is a lot to digest within the context of Anabaptist History. The Anabaptists were a small radical group that solidified as a movement in 1525. During the Reformation, Europe was in a gyroscrope of motion with new ideas that stemmed from both the political and religious disharmony of the era. It truly was a topsy turvy era, in the grip of moving from the medeival to the modern. From the Pope, to the Crowns, to merchant class, all the way downs to those who were in servitude as serfs, had ideas of what was theologically correct, what was orthodox, what was heresy, and what was to be the penalties for such heresies.

Sins that at one time could be forgiven through the absolution of the local parish priest, would now be unforgivable. Allegiances to the Royal Crowns of Europe,the Papal Crown or both would lead to much human suffering if one did not fall into the dominate religious-political sphere in which one was born or lived and their beliefs fell into keeping with those who held religous/political control. For many they changed allegiance to crown and church, upon the decision of the crown.

The Crown, such as Prince Frederick III, began to see the usefullness to Luther's theology, not just it's emphasis on grace, but that the state may no longer pay taxes, or religious tribute, to the Pope. Germans saw the French, as the pope's little pet, especially due to the time in which the Papal City was moved to France. The Pope was most often an arbritrator, of land disputes between the two countries and often lands were allocated to the French Lords, by the Pope. They believed the pope did not have the German people's interest at heart and their papal taxes/indulgences were too high.

During the Reformation, the two protestant groups were centered in the countries in which the movement was founded for Lutherans, Northern Germany, for those who followed Zwingli, who would later be called the Reformed, Lived in Switzerland and later North Eastern France, The Counter Reformation, was led by the Jesuits who came in the 1530's and were found to hold sway in Southern Germany and Austria. The Anabaptists, lived in Strasbourg and in the lower Prussian states. However unlike their contemporaries the Anabaptists held little political sway.

This decentralized movement and its lack of political prowess lead the local crowns and magistrates to see these re-baptizers as trouble makers who sought to deligitmate the crown by not pledging oath to defend the crown and her territories. For this reason is why the Anabaptists movement has been called the "Radical Reformation". These radicals were thereby subjugated to a group of what many today might dub as spiritualists, socialists, anarchists.

These people who were living on the cusp of the modern era, began to take their faith in other directions than the their Catholic, Reformed, and Lutheran counterparts. They believed that they most adhere to the Catholic tradition's "love by doing" they believed that they Eucharist was a memorial feast in keeping with the Reformed, Lutherans, they maintained the belief in the two kingdom model but took it to the next level, as a whole. Believing that they must not take up the sword for the government. They were known for believing above all else that one must have a believers baptism, as an adult. This is why they were dubbed Anabaptist, a slur which meant "twice/ or re-baptized".

This is just a little taste of some of the history of the Anabaptist movement.
Come and companion me through the history of the Radical Reformation